Maria João Pires arrived at a lunchtime concert in Amsterdam prepared to perform Mozart's Piano Concerto No. 23 in A major, K. 488. 

However, as the orchestra began playing, she realized they were performing Mozart's Piano Concerto No. 20 in D minor, K. 466—the piece actually scheduled. 

Despite the unexpected turn, Pires, with encouragement from conductor Riccardo Chailly, drew upon her memory and delivered a flawless performance of the correct concerto.

A situation like this makes us pianists think of what are truly the best memorization practices for us as we approach building a repertoire list. 

Noa Kageyama is a performance psychologist on the faculty of the Juillard School and Cleveland Institute of Music. Originally a violinist, Kageyama pivoted to the study of psychology and the science of performing optimally under pressure, and is here with us in an exclusive interview presented by pianist/composer Robert Fleitz.

This interview was prepared in conjunction with this new feature on the tonebase Piano YouTube channel:

RF: I'm so happy to have you here today to talk about one of the most famous examples of pianists performing under pressure. We’ll start with the primary one, which is the example of Maria João Pires being put in a situation where she had to play a concerto she was not expecting.

As we've discussed before, I think we can approach this from two different angles. The first is the angle of memorization. From what I understand, she had played the piece in the past, the new concerto, and was able to basically revive it a year later on the spot. I’m curious if you could talk us through your thoughts about this and the memorization process in general.

NK: Sure. Anytime I’m asked a question about somebody I’ve never met, there’s always some guessing and conjecture involved. I think it’s important to mention that I haven’t talked to the people we’re discussing today. So I can only make general assumptions about what might have been happening.

I did some reading in advance to get a sense of the situation. There are a number of factors to consider here, and you mentioned memory as a key part. Fundamentally, there are three aspects to the memorization process. I think we often approach memorization without breaking it down into detailed terms. We just experience it happening as we learn a piece, hope it’s there, cross our fingers, and go on stage. Often it works out, but sometimes it doesn’t.

There’s an encoding phase where you get to know a piece by breaking it down. This is where music theory training comes in—understanding the structure of a piece, how phrases are built, the different voices, and musical characters. The better one understands a piece structurally, whether through harmonic analysis or simply having a mental map, the easier it is to recall it. For example, recognizing when a phrase repeats but with a twist each time.

Understanding the mapping of a piece not only helps with musical interpretation but also improves memory reliability. Some people use narrative elements or connect the music to specific characters. Fingerings also play a role—good fingerings can aid memorization, while awkward ones can make it harder.

The second aspect is consolidating what we encode into long-term memory. This is largely dependent on sleep. We’re often told not to pull all-nighters before exams, and the same applies here. Spacing out learning over time and getting sufficient rest are key.

The third aspect, and perhaps the most relevant here, is retrieval. Retrieval practice is critical for memory. For example, when we study for tests, we take practice tests to strengthen our recall. But with music, we often avoid retrieval practice because it’s less fun. Playing without the music, especially when we’re not 100% confident, exposes weaknesses we’d rather ignore. However, identifying these weak spots early is essential.

A good example is David Kim, the concertmaster of the Philadelphia Orchestra. In a video, he shared his preparation process for concertos, saying he performs a piece 30–40 times for community members before the actual performance. This rigorous approach ensures comfort under performance conditions.

Similarly, in other disciplines like language learning, flashcards are a classic tool for testing recall. Cycling through them repeatedly reinforces memory and makes recall faster and more seamless. The same applies to music—repeated retrieval strengthens our ability to perform under pressure.

In Pires’s case, my understanding is that she had recorded and performed the concerto many times over the years. Those repeated experiences cemented the details in her memory in a way that simply practicing at home wouldn’t. Context-dependent memory also plays a role here; performing with an orchestra versus alone provides different cues that aid recall.

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RF: That’s fantastic. It’s fascinating to see all the elements that contributed to her success in that moment. As you said, many of us don’t get the opportunity to perform a concerto repeatedly with an orchestra. What are some practical ways we can prepare and avoid neglecting these small but crucial details?

NK: One practical step is to record yourself more often and earlier in the preparation process. When I was younger, I only recorded myself a week before a performance, which wasn’t very helpful. Starting months in advance allows you to identify areas needing improvement while there’s still time to address them.

Record at the beginning of your practice session rather than the end. This exposes what’s called the “illusion of mastery.” We tend to assume how we sound at the end of practice reflects our skill level, but it’s really how we sound at the beginning that shows where we stand.

Recording early and often helps pinpoint where memory work needs focus. You can then address gaps, add retrieval cues, or clarify the structure. Testing your memory by playing without the score is also critical—it exposes weaknesses and gives you a chance to strengthen those areas before the performance.

Finally, many of us rely too heavily on muscle memory. While it’s important, it’s not enough on its own. Pires herself mentioned the importance of combining explicit memory (understanding structure and harmony) with procedural memory (muscle memory). Both must work together to achieve reliable performance under pressure.

RF: Great, that’s really helpful. Now, let’s move to another aspect of this challenge: the panic moment. For many performers, the thought of being unprepared on stage is a nightmare. In the videos we discussed, the performers reacted calmly and adapted quickly to unexpected situations. What are your thoughts on managing these high-pressure moments?

NK: I watched those videos a few times and found it fascinating. You can empathize with what must be happening internally in those moments. Maria João Pires mentioned the importance of “acceptance”—accepting the situation without fighting it.

This aligns with a concept in sports psychology about detaching from outcomes. Letting go of the need to impress or prove something allows you to stay present and focus on shaping each phrase. Many performers struggle with staying in the moment because they worry about difficult passages ahead or mistakes they just made. Ironically, worrying about memory often causes memory slips.

Staying in the present requires attention control. This is something I work on consistently with musicians. It involves trusting your preparation and focusing on creating the music in real time, rather than overthinking technical details or external pressures like audience reactions.

RF: Absolutely. It seems that preparation, both mental and physical, is the foundation for handling these moments.

NK: Yes, preparation is key. Mental preparation is often overlooked but just as important as physical practice. On stage, performers should shift from analytical thinking to engaging with the music and the moment. This shift needs to be practiced, through recording or mock performances, to feel natural during an actual performance.

RF: That’s so insightful. I’ve personally struggled with maintaining focus and productivity during practice. Do you have advice for overcoming attention difficulties?

NK: Clear goals are essential for maintaining focus. Knowing exactly how you want a passage to sound helps guide your practice and makes it easier to stay engaged. On stage, focus shifts to outcome-related aspects, like the sound you want or the phrase you’re shaping, rather than the mechanics of playing.

There’s research by Gabrielle Wulf showing that focusing on the goal of motor movements, rather than the movements themselves, improves performance. This adjustment from practice mode to performance mode needs to be rehearsed so it feels natural.

RF: That’s such a valuable perspective. You’ve shared so much helpful information. Are there any final thoughts you’d like to share about memorization under pressure?

NK: Just two key takeaways: First, memory work happens in advance and is tied to how well you intellectually and musically understand the piece. Second, preparing for the mental experience of performing, through retrieval practice and mock performances, is crucial and often overlooked.

RF: Thank you so much for this. I’ve learned a lot, and I’m sure our audience will too. Where can we find more about your work?

NK: The easiest place is bulletproofmusician.com, where you’ll find nearly 600 articles on performance psychology, interviews, and more.

RF: Fantastic. Thank you again!

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